Entrepreneurship, Innovation and Economic Development

Entrepreneurship, Innovation and Economic Development â€Å"‘Discuss the relationship between entrepreneurship, innovation and economic development. What role do creativity and problem solving play in this relationship? † In today’s world, entrepreneurship and innovation are becoming increasingly crucial as drivers of the economy, especially so in the developing economies where trade plays a major part in generating revenue. In China, small-and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) account for almost 70 percent of all Chinese exports, a share that reflects the above statement about the importance of entrepreneurship to economic robustness.Some questions may be raised on whether entrepreneurship lead to economic development or is the latter a prerequisite to facilitate the entrepreneurship and innovation processes instead. This essay , while recognizing the need of certain institutions and framework to be in place and functioning well in order to ease the functioning of business activities, takes the stand that entrepreneurship and innovation leads to economic development more often than of the other way around.Realising its potential, governments’ initiatives have largely been centred on encouraging more entrepreneurs to start up a venture or to expand their existing businesses. In the 2013 National Budget, the Malaysian Government has allocated a fund of RM 1 billion under the SME Development Scheme (News Straits Times 2012). This very government has also recently launched SME Masterplan (2012 – 2020). These initiatives are aimed at supporting and accelerating the growth and development of SME-s across all sectors of the economy.In evaluation though, more start-ups and new business ventures in an economy does not necessarily translate into economic growth and improvement. In order for the desired economic aims to be achieved, we need to ensure that the start-ups and existing businesses thrive and not fail, for doomed enterprises mor e often than not suck resources out of the economy. This essay will identify how businesses, using innovative practices and creativity in both business operations as well as in problem solving, can achieve greater performance and sustainability in order to positively contribute to economic development.Jospeh Schumpeter defines entrepreneurs as innovators who implement entrepreneurial change within markets (Ahamad, 2008). This can be in the sense of introduction of a new or improved good, introduction of a new method of production or business management process, and the exploitation of a new source of supply. In short, entrepreneurship is the act of identifying market opportunities and using innovative approaches to exploit them (Ahamad, 2008). â€Å"Business opportunities are like buses, there’s always another one coming† (McAshan, 2011).Such are the words Richard Branson has used to describe the ample opportunities available for entrepreneurs to capitalize on. An entr epreneur can either start a venture by either involving themselves in a established market with certainty of demand for the goods offered, or they can exploit a new market altogether, by identifying a market niche and work on fulfilling the needs of that certain segment. By undertaking the former, entrepreneurs face a large and possibly increasing pool of competitors. This market, as described in the book Blue Ocean Strategy, is the â€Å"Red Ocean†.In contrast, entrepreneurs who venture into an untapped market space, focusing on demand creation, have unlimited potential to grow profitably (Chan & Mauborgne, 2005). â€Å"The only way to beat the competition is to stop trying to beat the competition. † Entrepreneurs should focus on undertaking the value innovation strategy proposed in the Blue Ocean Strategy. By creating a leap in value for buyers, a venture can open up new and uncontested market space, this makes competition irrelevant (Chan & Mauborgne, 2005).To be su ccessful, entrepreneurs will need to undertake innovative processes in creating the product or service as so to distinguish themselves from the rest of the existing options in the market. In other words, the product or services offered must stand out, have relevance and good purpose, and provides a high value add to consumers. It must provide the wow effect to the masses, which will in turn capture attention and help rake in revenues. Besides product and service innovation, innovation also can be implemented in improving the business management process.For example, all this while, organizations are shaped in the top-down organizational structure. Innovative entrepreneurs might have a different preference on running the firm, and choose to have a flatter structure, defying the norm. This can rake in benefits as in a flat structure, creativity and feedback are encouraged, there is more empowerment of young people by the executives, leading to a more open and vibrant organization. This will provide amazing esults in terms of business performance especially in today’s fast paced business world, which requires enterprises to be nimble and quick to adapt to changes (Griffin, 1999). Besides innovating and introducing a good and impressive product, an enterprise should also aim to develop strengths in multiple areas to gain an advantage over the rest of the field. Edges such as fantastic supply chain system which is due to good contacts and strong relationships with suppliers is a crucial factor in determining how well a business does.Toyota for instance, are famed for their Lean Production System, which is a key factor contributing to their status as market leader in the automobile industry. Besides that, the ability to develop strong brand loyalty with customers by establishing a culture of responsiveness to them is also another example of what an enterprise can focus on doing. It is easy to knock off an innovative product, but an innovative business system i s hard to replicate (Bhide, 1996).Businesses should thus focus on enhancing creativity, building strong networks, utilize technology available to enhance performance, devise effective strategies to be incorporated in the business process, aim to build good reputation among consumers by providing consistent and reliable service and also, be ever-ready to act quickly, on both opportunities as well as issues that will arise every now and then (Bhide, 1994). When faced with a problem, how fast and how well an entrepreneur responds to it will have a telling effect on the business performance.It can potentially act as a morale booster if dealt well, and have adverse effects if not. Spardlin (2012) suggests that a large number of enterprises are simply not rigorous in defining the problems they are attempting to solve. The Creative Problem Solving Process Model suggest the use of an explorer’s mindset, as well as a detective mindset when it comes to defining problems. This is so as to pinpoint the problem, also identifying the opportunities and future-oriented aspects involved (Lumsdaine, 2009). When you ask the right questions, chances are you’ll be able to tackle the right problems well.InnoCentive, an innovation-focused problem solving consulting agency, has devised a four-step process for firms, to be used in defining problems and later solving them (Spardlin, 2012). This process has four main focuses. First, it aims to help users pinpoint the need for the solution, and state what the desired outcome is. Next, it articulates the strategic importance of the solution to the firm. Then, it looks into the methods that may have already been used, recognize the constraints involved and lastly a clear and complete problem statement is produced (Spardlin, 2012).This multi-steps process is important to rally the organisation around a shared understanding of the situation, its magnitude and amount of resources needed to be devoted to the rectification of the issue. More often than not, firms allocate inappropriate level of resources to solving problems faced: too few resources are allocated to high-stakes ones and excess resources are devoted to tackling wrongly defined problems or low priority ones (Spardlin, 2012). After problem definition, idea generation and evaluation follows.Using the artist, engineer and judge mindsets, organisations are encouraged to generate solutions through a creative, innovative and evaluative process (Lumsdaine, 2009). This process works well in brainstorming groups. As ideas are being suggested, chances are a constructive build-on will occur. Ideas will then be synthesized, and the best solution(s) will then be picked. The Pugh Method can be used in tandem with the idea evaluation process: Concepts are compared in an advantage-disadvantage matrix.It can be used to compare the few available ideas in hand, choosing the best one ultimately, and it can also be used to benchmark against an existing concept in t he market (Lumsdaine, 2009). With this, entrepreneurs can now be assured of a well-thought idea for their products or services or even when it comes to solving issues. The implementation of ideas, or the execution is a pivotal area of focus for entrepreneurs. Execution is as equally important as the idea itself. Entrepreneurship is not just all about being creative and inventing or innovating good products and services.A good idea without careful and precise implementation will not help a business reach its potential. Furthermore, an innovative new product or service may do very well when introduced, but its popularity will also attract new companies who will imitate and try to capture a share of the market. Thus the importance of laying strong foundations and fundamentals in terms of implementation must be stressed on by entrepreneurs. Aspiring entrepreneurs should realise the importance of working on establishing the business’ brand name as well as using creativity in erect ing barriers that will deter imitators.This is especially crucial if their innovation of products are easily copied. This can be done by careful planning, acquisition and management of the necessary resources. Clearly, innovation, problem solving and creativity are all connected and play important roles in driving entrepreneurship. A society will be much better off with better products and services, as well as having the luxury of a wider range of product choices to choose from. Entrepreneurship will indefinitely spur economic development in a country.As mentioned above, enterprises contribute to the exports of a country, so in this aspect a country will record better balance of payments performances. Also, as consumers now have better quality goods produced locally, the dependency on imported goods can be reduced, and internal growth is spurred with increased consumption in the economy. Lastly, as firms embark on the innovation drive, more technology usage will mean investment acti vities are bound to increase, contributing to the long run health of the economy. In short, innovation in entrepreneurship is important for economic development.Efforts to strengthen these practices should be undertaken by all parties, including the government. References Ahmad, N. and R. G. Seymour (2008), â€Å"Defining Entrepreneurial Activity: Definitions Supporting Frameworks for Data Collection†, OECD Statistics Working Papers, 2008/01, OECD Publishing. Bhide, A. (1994). How Entrepreneurs Craft Strategies That Work. Harvard Business Review. Bhide, A. (1996). The Questions Every Entrepreneurs Must Answer. Harvard Business Review. Chan K. W. & Mauborgne R. (2005), Blue Ocean Strategy: How to Create Uncontested Market Space and Make Competition Irrelevant: Harvard Business Press. Finfacts. (2007).Chinese SMEs boost exports and growth; More created in past 20 years than total number of SMEs in Europe and US combined. Available: http://www. finfacts. com/irelandbusinessnews/ publish/article_1010697. shtml. Last accessed 20th November 2012. Griffin, D. (1999). Benefits in a Flat Organizational Structure. Available: http://smallbusiness. chron. com/benefits-flat-organizational-structure-281. html. Last accessed 30th of November. Lumsdaine, E . , Binks, M . (2009). Entrepreneurship from Creativity to Innovation. Nottingham, University of Nottingham Institute for Enterprise and Innovation McAshan, T. (2011). 50 Great Entrepreneurial

Excellence vs. Success

Excellence vs.. Success Ohio Christian University 2 Excellence and success are two words that most people have a fear of either having or not having. Growing up in an ever changing world where technology was Just beginning, cell phones were giant radios that you would carry around in a big black box and the internet was rarely heard of by the hustle and bustle of every day common people, excellence was not even in my vocabulary. It seems to take a great number of us most of our adult life to live up to our full potential and sadly, many of us never do.Johnston Nonstop 2004) defines excellence and success in a manner that anyone could understand. He says it is a certain life style, a manner of living, a hierarchy of values, an admirable self-imposed standard (p. 25). Excellence is determined by the individual defining it and, therefore, means for each of us the definition of excellence is different and on our own terms. According to Johnston (2004) success, on the other hand, is defin ed by cultural ideas, that â€Å"pot of gold at the end of the rainbow' (p. 30). The question is does success outweigh excellence in today's society?We are defined by our clothes, the cars we drive, the house we live in, our bank accounts and even our friends. We all strive for success, that pot of gold, but how many of us strive for excellence? Excellence and success can be prevented by a lack of confidence and fear. We seem to put unrealistic expectations on ourselves and that fear of failure prevents many of us from living up to our full potential, this I have learned from my own personal experience. For these two words 3 being so closely related, society seems to get them greatly confused. There was a time success was most important to me but not anymore.When I was saved I began to strive for excellence Just by my actions. Living a life of Christ requires excellence which reminds me of a bible verse I read â€Å"Give her of the fruit of her hands; and let her own works praise her in the gates†. (Proverbs 31 :31 XIV). My actions today need to reflect upon me when I reach the gates of heaven. I will make mistakes along the way because I am human but I also know that as long as I give 110 percent I am doing my best. References Johnston, J. , & Costing, K. W. (2004). Christian Excellence: Alternative to Success (2nd De. ). Franklin, TN: KOOK pub.

Picking Cotton

When a traumatic event happens, a multitude of people are affected. In Picking Cotton: Our Memoir of Injustice and Redemption written by Jennifer Thompson- Cannino and Ronald Cotton, the story of Thompson's rape and Cotton's conviction is unraveled through the perspective of both authors. The emotions that both Thompson and Cotton endure in the aftermath of the rape are shown with the alternation of speaker. With the change in speaker in each part of the book, the read gets to see the most significant part of the person's life.The memoir begins with Thompson's rape, in the perspective of her. Telling the horror of Thompsons experience strengths the reader's sympathy towards her as pathos dominates the first section of the novel. Being inside Thompson's mind and knowing her strength throughout the crime acts as a characterization method for Thompson. Since the novel is nonfiction, the typical characterization methods used in other novels are not possible. Knowing how Thompson thinks a nd feels creates traits for her which later makes her conviction of Cotton understandable.The transition to Cotton during his ime in prison enlightens the reader on Cotton's life and also his innocence. An inside look of what a double life sentence can take from an honest man is shown as Cotton reveals his hardships during his memoir. Again pathos was used, showing the struggles and confrontation Cotton faces during his imprisonment. The theme of forgiveness results after Cotton's perspective and thoughts are expressed and he chooses to forgive Thompson for her mistake. Having multiple speakers in the novel also has its disadvantages.By changing perspectives from Thompson to Cotton, the eader is neglected the others thoughts during a certain time. While Cotton tells of his prison time, the read does not know how Thompson is the novel during this time. When the novel changes speakers back to Thompson she is married with children. There is a missing gap of time the reader never knows about. The reader also misses out on Cottons reunion with his community and friends. During times when both Cotton and Thompson are together, only one person's thoughts are shown, blinding the reader to how the other person feels and what they are thinking.The authors' choice to share both of their stories in one novel had both advantages and disadvantages. While the different point of views showed how both Jennifer Thompson and Ronald Cotton were victims as a result of the crime committed by Booby Poole, the reader did not always get the full story of both speakers. Overall, the structure of the novel was strong and made a momentous impact on the reader and accomplished its goal of bringing awareness to wrongful imprisonment and also to forgiveness. Picking Cotton By alyssaduck

ENERGY WEDGES Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

ENERGY WEDGES - Lab Report Example Our group resorted to cutting carbon emission by half hence built an energy wedge that shows how the significant reduction is likely to take place if endorsed by the whole world. Our energy wedge begins with efficiency in transport as the basic of reducing carbon emission by 50%. The group believes that the current consumption of fuel by vehicles is likely to double from 30 mpg to 60mpg in the next 50 years. In order for saving to be achieved, there is need for the economy to shift from carbon energy sources to hybrid diesel engine technologies. Building efficiency comes second in the wedge. If technology is well utilized, buildings are supposed reduce emissions of carbon by 25% (Levy, 2010). This can be done through using solar heaters and using good insulators in construction of houses to reduce the demand of heat by electricity and other carbon sources. The next energy conservation strategy involves use of conservative measure in transport. Reducing face-to-face communication and using more electronic sources of communication will reduce the rate at which people travel (Neuhoff). This will lead to conservation of energy. The next wedge of conservation is efficiently producing electricity. Use of coal as a source of energy leads to production of about a fifth of worlds carbon. Reducing this b half in the next 50 years helps in solving this problem. Use of green sources as energy conservation form the next four level of our wedge. We realized that production is only likely to reduce by half so we opted for other means through which the remaining half of carbon emitted could be stored or reduced. This could be achieved by use of forest storage. Conserving forests ensures that trees absorb carbon emitted and use it as a source of food production. Soil is also another form in which carbon products can be stored. This can be supported by planting cover crops and preventing soil erosion. Use of

Career Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Career Management - Essay Example According to Kossek & Roberts, self-set managing activities mainly includes acquiring knowledge about one's personality, set of connections and appreciation on successfully completion of the assignments in the course of career development within an institution. (ELLEN ERNST KOSSEK, KAREN ROBERTS, 1998) On the other hand, "organizational career management" expresses the course of action adapted by the organizations to manage the careers of its workers. As per the theories of Stump, the Organizational career management is "actions and prospects that organizations support to help guarantee they will congregate or surpass their expected human resource necessities." (ELLEN ERNST KOSSEK, KAREN ROBERTS, 1998) Stumpf also reveals in his theory that the career corridors, worker education & development, employment postings, vocation therapies, outplacement psychotherapies and mentoring are merely few measures that are usually implemented in organizational career management agendas. (STUMPF, S.A., 1988) Loads of scholars have cited the work of Arnold (1997) who in his theories had explained career management as an endeavor to influence the career development of others. ... (ARNOLD, John, 1997) There has been occurrence of elementary shifts in the management of careers however, while previously careers were managed by the organizations by way of conventional and secure progress upwards on organizationally-defined ladders on the other hand the present-day arrangement of career management focuses on attaining knowledge and proficiencies as an alternative of making headway through a preset sequence of positions. (THITE, Mohan, 2001) Acquirement of novel acquaintance and talents increase the chances of "employability," i.e. the capability for the member of staff to achieve and sustain employment, facilitating the worker to budge around what Thite had referred to as a "jungle gym" of designations. (CLARKE, Marilyn, 2007) This novel conceptual framework of career management constitutes diverse meaning for mutually, the individual and the organization, getting forward to a dual way approach towards "career management, individual career management and organizational career manageme nt." (BARUCH, Y., 2006) This paper hereby evaluates the significance of career Management as an essential component of Human Resource activities from the joint perception of the organization as well as individual employees. This paper also highlights the obstructions that are usually encountered by HR professionals in implementing the career management program in an organization in addition with the measures that could be implemented to evade these barricades. This paper provides brief opinions of a number of researchers and authors on the topic. 2. Significance of Career Management The incorporation of the career management practice in HRM permits the shifting from a scheme of administration

The value of leadership in the contemporary healthcare organisations Essay

The value of leadership in the contemporary healthcare organisations - Essay Example The research paper â€Å"The value of leadership in the contemporary healthcare organizations† highlights the leadership issues of human resource management and the leadership of clinicians and other stakeholders. The National Health Service (NHS) in the UK is faced daily with issues that make service delivery more and more challenging. These problems bare a direct effect on the health of every individual, because if the Healthcare organs function in a strain it would transcend into less quality services provided. Healthcare workers include various professionals from Doctors, nurses, administrators and sundry other stakeholders who are relevant to the delivery of good Healthcare are affected by the issues of funding, inadequate or shortage of manpower. However in the NHS one major clog in the wheel of adequate, humane healthcare delivery is the issue of personnel. Due to the nature of synergistic collaboration needed to provide adequate services at these organisations, human r esources management must be at the most efficient level. Bickering among stakeholders from Government agents to Medical staff has escalated, assuming alarming proportions. Therefore the importance of rightly qualified persons to handle all aspects of healthcare institutions is all too clear. Every healthcare worker should know what values they are supposed to believe in and strive for. Leadership will be seen to be failing if it is not setting the right examples. A good manager must know how and when to use any style of Leadership.

The Seeking of the Non-Executive Directors (NEDs) Essay

The Seeking of the Non-Executive Directors (NEDs) - Essay Example Consequently, this had resulted in endeavors to make the directors more liable for their strategies and actions. The inclusion of non-executive directors in the board of an organization has an imperative part to play in this context and will be the subject of concern in this study (Stewart, n.d., p.2). The non-executive directors (NEDs) perform multiple functions in an organization. In accordance to the Combined and the UK Codes of Corporate Governance together with the UK Stewardship Code, the NEDs seek to challenge the chairman and the executive directors in the board, offer expertise, knowledge and insight to the board, elevate principles of corporate governance, and guide the board on business strategy (Lewis, 2010, p. 5). The role of the non-executive director The latest financial disaster and the resulting bail-out of many financial organizations have impelled the discussion regarding the position and efficacy of non-executive directors (NEDs) in context of corporate governance . ... Fundamentally, the role of a non-executive director is to offer a resourceful contribution to the organization by presenting objective criticism to the board. The non-executive directors seek to bring in independent opinion on matters associated with strategy, resources and performance of the organization. Additionally, it is also expected that the NEDs would provide their independent verdict on key appointments to be made in the organization as well as its standards of conduct. The non-executive directors are inducted in the board of an organization owing to their wide range of experience, their apt competence and meticulous personal attributes. Furthermore, the NEDs might possess some expert knowledge and understanding that would aid the board by endowing it with helpful insights or key contacts in associated businesses. Nevertheless, the utmost objective of having the non-executive directors in the board is their independence with respect to the organization’s management as well as its involved parties. This implies that the NEDs bring in an extent of impartiality to the board’s discussions and negotiations, and hence play a crucial task of monitoring the management of the organization. According to the Combined Code of Corporate Governance (2008), the board of any business organization should comprise of ample number of autonomous non-executive directors having adequate calibre, so that their opinions carry considerable weight in the discussions of the board during strategy formulation and other important issues. In addition to providing added competence, proficiency and perspective, the introduction of NEDs in an

Dialectical Journal - The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde Assignment - 1

Dialectical Journal - The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde - Assignment Example However, Algernon alludes that not bearing a mother’s likeness is also tragic. However, this is true if related to the Oedipus Complex. Wilde intended to show the kind of attributes that would influence a man. After noting that Miss Prism bears such attributes, he went ahead to amplify how such attributes would factor into influencing Jack’s brother. The amplification makes the attributes vivid, and exemplifies Miss Prism’s knowledge. Wilde used these ironical and sharply contradicting statements to criticize writings that end happily, as they supposedly are predictable, and do hence to make the readers happy. The device also injected humor into the statement. Wilde used the words to intentionally expose Jack’s intent of lying about the death of his brother. This element of foreshadowing inspires the reader to imagine the events that would unfold when Jack tells the lie. The words are used to make reference to the action of escorting, or accompanying. In this sense, jack projects his intent to accompany Miss Fairfax to a destination, out of the house. Taken literarily, Jack’s statement may also imply an intention of observing Miss Fairfax when she is out of the house. The metonymy has been used to inspire the readers imagination beyond the contexts of the actions of the characters. Chasuble preferred to elaborate the practices in the Primitive Church, in an exemplified manner. As such, his statement stands out amongst the several made by other people. Considering that Chasuble is a doctor, the words were chosen by Wilde to project his social status and level of education. Wilde restructured Algernon’s phrase from ‘as long as’ to ‘so long as’ to create an element of humor. It is the reminder that Jack’s mourning which has been taken seriously even by Algernon, is false. Algernon intended to tell

Choice of the Managing Director Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Choice of the Managing Director - Essay Example Introduction In case of the expatriate operations, the functions of management and leadership are to a large extent dependent on a much broader concept called ‘diversity’ (Kirton & Greene 2005, p. 127). Diversity is a very expansive concept that includes within its ambit a little more than an individual’s looks, colour, traits, attitudes and status (Kirton & Greene 2005). In the given scenario the managing director to be selected will be required to manage, function and lead in an environment that will carry a quintessentially Vietnamese flavour. As the commonsense suggest, it will be much easier for a Vietnamese managing director to manage the manufacturing operations being undertaken in Vietnam. However, in an academic context, the choice to be made is necessarily required to be explained in a rational and factual manner. As per Geert Hofstede, the salient values in any organization are to a large extent determined by the predominant culture of that place. Hofst ede grouped the cultural values of varied countries and regions into four main groups that are called the Hofstede cultural dimensions (Baptiste, Dodor & Rana 2007). ... Vietnam has a Power Distance Index of 70, which means that in the Vietnamese society, people do readily accept a hierarchical system, without registering any objections or problems (Hofstede 1996). Individualism is a cultural attribute that determines as to the extent to which the members in a society tend to remain independent. On this dimensions, Vietnam has a score of 20 that means that in Vietnam it is the group affiliations that stand to dominate over individual aspirations and ambition (Tuan & Napier 2000). Masculinity is a cultural dimension that explains whether a society values success and ambition or whether it gives priority to the overall quality of life over success, achievement and ambition (Hofstede 1996). Vietnam has a score of 40 on this dimension which means that Vietnam is particularly a feminine society where solidarity and quality of life holds a sway over success and achievement (Reynolds 2000). Hofstede also propounded one more cultural dimension that is Uncert ainty Avoidance. The Uncertainty Avoidance Index of a culture states as to what extent the people in a culture are comfortable with the anxiety and stress associated with the ambiguity inherent in the future (Hofstede 1996). Vietnam has a low Uncertainty Avoidance Index of 30 which means that the Vietnamese hate uncertainty and are mostly willing to do away with strict norms and principles in favour of ease and certainty (Tuan & Napier 2000). It will be really interesting to see as how the Australian culture scores on the four Hofstede cultural dimensions. Australia- Cultural Dimensions Australia has a Power Distance Index of 36, very low as compared to Vietnam. Translated practically it means that in the Australian work culture, hierarchies

Controversial legal issue Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Controversial legal issue - Essay Example Major religions of the world favor the continuance of life in practically most instances with a very few exceptions where the taking of life can be justified. Religious laws are quite absolute about the prohibition against taking a life, whether one's own life or that of another person. In the eyes of God, anyone who takes life commits a grave mortal sin. However, great strides and advances in medical science and technology now allow the person to prolong life by artificial methods. This technological achievement is unprecedented in the history of mankind. For the first time ever, Man can now â€Å"play God† because he has a power to extend a life whenever he wants to. Regrettably, present laws and jurisprudence has not kept up with these medical advances. The result is often confusing as there are no rules to guide us by. In the same manner, ethics (in particular, biological ethics or bio-ethics) likewise has not been able to deal with complex medical issues. Euthanasia or me rcy killing is just one bio-medical issue that has hounded healthcare professionals and legal practitioners alike. The questions regarding euthanasia are many and very convoluted; there are no easy answers here. This paper re-visits and examines the issue of euthanasia from a legal perspective. Discussion There are many biological and medical issues that are not being resolved satisfactorily by the present state of our medical ethics today. Besides euthanasia, other examples that legal and medical experts alike grapple with are abortion, surrogate motherhood, organ transplants, brain death and end-of-life care (palliative medicine). The basic questions facing all ethicists can be generalized into a few categories, such as: how is life to be measured and determined (that life exists), who will judge whether a person should live or die, what constitutes proof of death and when should heroic medical intervention be withheld from a patient? The ultimate question is who has the right to live and the right to die? Even dying can be considered as one of the more basic human rights – that is, the right to die with dignity intact. Euthanasia – in plain and simple language, euthanasia means mercy killing. There are many situations in which euthanasia seems to be justified, such as when a person is suffering from an incurable and terminal disease and is very likely to suffer in great pain. Literally, the meaning of euthanasia in Greek is a â€Å"good and easy death† to relieve pain and suffering. Even the British House of Lords had deemed it appropriate to give a precise definition for it – â€Å"this is a deliberate intervention to end a life with express intention to relieve intractable suffering.† While people are still healthy, it is easy to be detached about all the debates on euthanasia but a time will come when a person has to face it and its consequences. The controversy surrounding euthanasia has been made more complicated beca use of the earlier practice of eugenics which is medical science applied to improving the composition of genetics in a human population (Appel, 2004, p. 611). Eugenics fell into disrepute because it was employed by the Nazis in their desire to attain a high level of purity of the Aryan races. There were several abuses committed such as forced sterilization, human experiments and the extermination of undesirable groups of people (compulsory or

Company Law- An Overview Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Company Law- An Overview - Case Study Example Generally, the company law recognizes two types of persons, namely natural which is confined to human beings and secondly artificial persons which refers anything other than the human being which the law recognizes as having duties and rights. Scholars have constantly explored the issue on the recognition of corporation/company as a "legal person" (Farrar, (1991) (1) A company, when legally speaking, is an association of a number of individuals for the purpose of carrying on some legitimate business i.e. entity for profit which may be a corporation, a partnership, association or individual proprietorship. It is the name given to the body of legal rules relating to the creation, management, financing and operation of companies. The various status of companies, like separate legal entity, limited liability etc has been contributed a number of recognition for English law, by which a company, as well as its members, possess some rights and liabilities. organizations such as religious orders and local authorities which were granted rights by the government to hold property and sue and be sued in their own right and not to have to rely on the rights of the members behind the organization. Later on, this concept began to apply to commercial ventures with a public interest element such as rail building ventures Farrar (Company law, 1991) (3) has described the concept of separate legal personality as a metaphorical use of language, clothing the formal group with a single separate legal entity by analogy with a natural person. The decision of the House of Lords in Salomon v Salomon & Co Ltd (4) rightly molded the concept of legal entity nature of a company and it provided new principles to the Company law. It firmly established that upon incorporation, a new and separate artificial entity comes into existence. Hence corporation/company is a distinct person with its own personality separate from and independent of the persons who formed it, who invest money in it, and who direct and manage its operations. (Ford, Austin, and Ramsay, 1997)(5) The decision uprooted in the law by the later decision in Lee v Lee's Air Farming (6).

Quotes from Genesis Essay Example for Free

Quotes from Genesis Essay â€Å"From now on you must circumcise every baby boy when he is eight days old, including slaves born in your homes and slaves bought from foreigners. This will show that there is a covenant between you and me. † Genesis 17:11 â€Å"Early the next morning Abraham gave Hagar some food and a leather bag full of water. He put the child on her back and sent her away. She left and wandered about in the wilderness of Beersheba. † Genesis 21:14 Take your son, God said, your only son, Isaac, whom you love so much, and go to the land of Moriah. There on a mountain that I will show you, offer him as a sacrifice to me. Early the next morning Abraham cut some wood for the sacrifice, loaded his donkey, and took Isaac and two servants with him. They started out for the place that God had told him about. † Genesis 22:2-3 â€Å"I want you to make a vow in the name of the LORD, the God of heaven and earth, that you will not choose a wife for my son from the people here in Canaan. You must go back to the country where I was born and get a wife for my son Isaac from among my relatives. Genesis 24:3-4 â€Å"I knelt down and worshiped the LORD. I praised the LORD, the God of my master Abraham, who had led me straight to my masters relative, where I found his daughter for my masters son. † Genesis 24:48 â€Å"Jacob answered, First make a vow that you will give me your rights. Esau made the vow and gave his rights to Jacob. Then Jacob gave him some bread and some of the soup. He ate and drank and then got up and left. That was all Esau cared about his rights as the first-born son. † Genesis 25:33-34 â€Å"The LORD blessed Sarah, as he had promised, and she became pregnant and bore a son to Abraham when he was old. The boy was born at the time God had said he would be born. Abraham named him Isaac, and when Isaac was eight days old, Abraham circumcised him, as God had commanded. Abraham was a hundred years old when Isaac was born. † Genesis 21:1-5 â€Å"That same night Jacob got up, took his two wives, his two concubines, and his eleven children, and crossed the Jabbok River. † Genesis 32:26 â€Å"For his first son Er, Judah got a wife whose name was Tamar. Ers conduct was evil, and it displeased the LORD, so the LORD killed him. Then Judah said to Ers brother Onan, Go and sleep with your brothers widow. Fulfill your obligation to her as her husbands brother, so that your brother may have descendants. Genesis 38:6-8 â€Å"They saw him in the distance, and before he reached them, they plotted against him and decided to kill him. They said to one another, Here comes that dreamer. Come on now, lets kill him and throw his body into one of the dry wells. We can say that a wild animal killed him. Then we will see what becomes of his dreams. Genesis 37:18-20 â€Å"Then Joseph gave orders to embalm his fathers body. It took forty days, the normal time for embalming. The Egyptians mourned for him seventy days. Genesis 50:2-3 â€Å"The king said to Joseph, God has shown you all this, so it is obvious that you have greater wisdom and insight than anyone else. I will put you in charge of my country, and all my people will obey your orders. Your authority will be second only to mine. I now appoint you governor over all Egypt. The king removed from his finger the ring engraved with the royal seal and put it on Josephs finger. He put a fine linen robe on him, and placed a gold chain around his neck. He gave him the second royal chariot to ride in, and his guard of honor went ahead of him and cried out, Make way! Make way! And so Joseph was appointed governor over all Egypt. The king said to him, I am the kingand no one in all Egypt shall so much as lift a hand or a foot without your permission. Genesis 41:39-44 â€Å"He put up an altar there and named it for El, the God of Israel. Gen 33:20 â€Å"Abram was a very rich man, with sheep, goats, and cattle, as well as silver and gold. † Gen 13:2 â€Å"When he was about to cross the border into Egypt, he said to his wife Sarai, You are a beautiful woman. When the Egyptians see you, they will assume that you are my wife, and so they will kill me and let you live. Tell them that you are my sister; then because of you they will let me live and treat me well. When he crossed the border into Egypt, the Egyptians did see that his wife was beautiful. Some of the court officials saw her and told the king how beautiful she was; so she was taken to his palace. Because of her the king treated Abram well and gave him flocks of sheep and goats, cattle, donkeys, slaves, and camels. † Genesis 12:11 â€Å"Laban said to Jacob, You shouldnt work for me for nothing just because you are my relative. How much pay do you want? Laban had two daughters; the older was named Leah, and the younger Rachel. Leah had lovely eyes, but Rachel was shapely and beautiful. Jacob was in love with Rachel, so he said, I will work seven years for you, if you will let me marry Rachel. Laban answered, I would rather give her to you than to anyone else; stay here with me. Jacob worked seven years so that he could have Rachel, and the time seemed like only a few days to him, because he loved her. † Genesis 29:15-20 â€Å"Abrams wife Sarai had not borne him any children. But she had an Egyptian slave woman named Hagar, and so she said to Abram, The LORD has kept me from having children. Why dont you sleep with my slave? Perhaps she can have a child for me. Abram agreed with what Sarai said. So she gave Hagar to him to be his concubine. (This happened after Abram had lived in Canaan for ten years. ) Abram had intercourse with Hagar, and she became pregnant. When she found out that she was pregnant, she became proud and despised Sarai. Genesis 16:1-4 Why it is Culturally Significant The various quotes from the book of Genesis can be said to an introduction to the Jewish culture. In the book of Genesis, we are made to see a glimpse of the way of life, the belief system and the norms that operate among the people that were soon t be called the nation of Israel. The practices of the people generally showed respect for God, respect for our fellowman, dedication to kinship and lifestyle patterned after the will of their creator. In the quotes above, one can deduce a lot from the culture of the Jewish people. Because the book is an introduction of what to come, we are being introduced to the Jewish culture vis-a-vis the Egyptian culture. The Jewish culture, as we see it in Genesis, is founded on the principle of trust in God and belief in God. It is this principle that embodies their actions and gives a direction to whatever they wan to do. Another thing that is significant about the culture in Genesis is that it is based on covenant. At various occasions in the book, we see a covenant relationship between God – Man and between Man – Man. This shows respect for their words and the value they place on promise and integrity. Furthermore, another significance that can be seen in the quotes above is the value that relationships play in the Jewish culture. Throughout the book, there is a sense of kinship and family bound among the Jews. Even when the other person is not in line, the culture teaches that we are one family and we should cover for the mistakes of our kinsman. An example is that of Abraham and Lot, and Joseph with his brothers. In addition to this, the culture in the book of Genesis shows the role and importance of destiny, choice and the place of precision of the word of God in the life of the people. It also shows the importance of a father’s blessing in the life of the son and the part that prophesy and covenant plays in the life of the people. How is it Different from Our Culture Although it might be argued that the establishment of our country s founded on the very principle of the Judeo-Christian beliefs and doctrines, there are some obvious difference in our culture today and that which is seen in the book of Genesis. An explanation to this might be the evolution of man and societies generally. As seen in Genesis, people were allowed to own slaves. This is in opposition to the American culture with is founded on liberty and freedom. In addition to this, the American culture does not incorporate polygamy unlike what we see in Genesis. Also, the idea of Judah’s transferring Er’s wife to the younger brothers when he died is not applicable to the American culture. The culture of sacrificing might be found in the American culture but not to the extent of sacrificing a human being. Furthermore, another thing that caught my fancy in the book of Genesis that is alien to the American culture is the birth of Isaac even when both Abraham and Sarah have passed their reproductive age. Apart from this, the American society is not a patriarchal society where the man rules and women are seen as the â€Å"weaker vessels†. Also, the manner in which marriage is recorded in the book of Genesis is quite different from what applies to the American culture. The practice of parents looking for a wife for the son or vise versa is strange to the American culture. As the book of Genesis records it, marriage is preferred between relatives, even as close as cousins. This can be seen in the union of Abraham and Sarah, Isaac and Rebecca and Jacob and Leah and Rachel. Summarily, I discovered that unlike the Bible culture portrayed in the book of Genesis, The American culture does not give room for pre-destination and prophesy. It is part of the American belief and culture that we can be whatever we want to be. Reference: Good News Bible (1994); The Book of Genesis. United Bible Societies.

Financing Education in Developing Countries

Financing Education in Developing Countries How should developing countries finance university education? Explain your answer with cross reference to developed country experiences of financing University Education. Word Count: 4023 1. Introduction Education, its nature, purpose, its provision, and most importantly, its funding, are major topics of cultural and ideological debates which remain a central point of concern even today. Till the 1980s, the social democratic consensus, in England and New Zealand for example, considered education to be a public good, and therefore an indispensable service, provided by the state, to all citizens equally, without direct charge. The New Zealand Treasure writers, for example, argue that education doesnt belong to the marketplace. It should be considered a Natural Sphere and a public good which needs state intervention (The New Zealand Treasury, 1987). However, New-Right arguments of the 1980s challenged this school of thought, asserting education is a commodity which should be left to the market forces with minimum state intervention (Grace, 1994). Barr (1993), for example, asserts education is not a public good since it does not exhibit the three reflections of public goods: non-rivalnes s, non-excludability and non-rejection (Barr, 1993). This lead to the dilemma of financing higher education: How should countries finance higher education? This essay begins with a theoretical framework, looking at the human capital theory to understand why education is important followed by a brief discussion on the key issues concerning financing higher education to understand why cost sharing has become a popular phenomenon over the years. Major alternatives to state financing are discussed using examples from different countries followed by a conclusion and a brief policy recommendation. 2. Theoretical Framework 2.1 Human Capital Theory Education is considered to be, both, a consumer and capital good (Okemakinde, 2008), because not only does it offer utility to a consumer, but also acts as input towards the production of other goods and services. It is, therefore, also considered to be highly effective and even necessary, to bring about an improvement in the production capacity of a country.   (Okemakinde, 2008) With the increase in economic development and structural change the requirement for skilled workers is increasing across all economies, resulting in an increasing demand for employees with higher education ( Department of Education and Training, 2015). Authors including Okemakinde (2008 ) and Psacharopoulos (1986) consider formal education to be an investment in human capital (table 1). The human capital theory, thus, encourages investment in education both in developing and developed countries (I. Fà ¤gerlind, 2002). Figure 1 Returns to investment in education by country type and level (Psacharopoulos, 1986) Education and development policies have largely been based on the theoretical framework of the Human Capital Theory, which stresses on the high returns of education, in terms of productivity and efficiency of workers, and eventually economic development (Ozturk, 2001). 2.2 State funding and the need for alternatives Countries with socio-political ideologies consider education to be a public good and, consequently, should be free or considerably subsidised. This ideology claims the society to be the major beneficiary of higher education and asserts substantial taxes can be raised, progressive in nature, if there is political will and proper leadership. Such taxes will cover costs of education, allowing students, especially among the poor, to have equal access to education (Johnstone, 2003). Previously, higher education in most developing countries was predominantly financed and provided by the government (Psacharopoulos, 1986), such as majority of Sub-Saharan Africa (Teferra, 2013) (McGavin, 1991), India (Tilak, 1995) and China (Cheng, 1995).   However, Psacharopoulos (1986) argues such a system lacks sustainability, efficiency and quality. In fact, till the 1960s most universities in the UK were funded by the state. As seen in figure 2, the shift away from public funding has increased the participation rate in higher education in the UK (Haynes, 2003). Figure 2 Index of student numbers and public funding for higher education, 1980/1-1999/2000 (Haynes, 2003) A dominant theme of higher education throughout the world in the 1990s has been financial distress (Johnstone, 1998). The upsurge in the demand for financing higher education (Johnstone, 2003), coupled with constrained public budgets, has been a major challenge faced by governments in both, developing as well as developed countries (Woodhall 2007,   Akpochafo 2009).   However, as the number of students enrolled in higher education increased, the subsidies introduced when enrollments were low proved to be unsustainable (Woodhall, 2007). According to Woodhall (2007), with the expansion of higher education systems and the difficulty addressing the costs of higher education through public expenditure, the last twenty years have seen major changes in how higher education has been financed worldwide. These include; an introduction of tuition fees in countries where higher education was free, a substantial increase in tuition fees and a shift towards student loans (Woodhall, 2007). Therefore, parallel systems of financial assistance and cost sharing have been introduced so that students and parents arent burdened by the cost of university education and equality and accessibility isnt compromised (Johnstone, 1998). 3. Alternative Methods of Financing Higher Education 3.1 Tuition fees, selective scholarships and grants Most developed countries shifted costs of education from taxpayers to students, in the form of tuition fees, decades ago. Tuition and fees in public and private universities have established in the US for a long time (Johnstone, 1998).The tuition fees for UK full-time undergraduates at a university in the UK were paid from public funds until 1998, when tuition fee was introduced (Barr, 1998).   This trend is now being followed by developing countries as well (Johnstone 1998, Salmi 1998, Hans de Wit 2005). Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, and Jamaica have higher levels of student financing, similar to those seen in Ireland, the Republic of Korea, and Spain. (Hans de Wit, 2005) Figure 3   cost recovery at public universities in Latin America and the Caribbean (Hans de Wit, 2005) In countries like as Bolivia, Guatemala and Thailand, cost recovery is low, or nonexistent like Brazil and Argentina, as seen in figure 3. It is important to note the drop-out rates in these countries. According to Hans De Wit (2005), the annual number of graduates in Columbia has risen over time as opposed to Argentina, where education is publically funded and drop-out rate is higher (figure 4). Figure 4 annual number of students admitted to and graduated universities in Argentina and Columbia, 1982-2001 (Hans de Wit, 2005) Johnstone   (1998) notes higher education in Hungary faced problems like inefficiency, inequality and lack of responsiveness to the market economy. The public sector was financing higher education, spending 86% per capita GDP on higher education in 1993 alone. This, compared to 45% in OECD countries and 30% in Germany, is a considerably high amount. As a result, the need for a shift in cost burden was felt. In 1995 full-time students paid a monthly tuition fee of HUF 2000 in public universities, while part-time students paid up to HUF 8000 per month. In order to ensure equality in access, tuition fee was fully or partially waived, based on academic merit or financial need, for one-fifth of the students (Johnstone, 1998). Figure 5 Higher education in Hungary, 1990/91 versus 2006/07 (Marcucci, 2008) The state support per student was 40 % lower in 1998 than it had been in 1990. Reforms in 2005 recommend state funding for at least 35% of graduate students and 10% for doctoral students and in 2007 the Ministry of Education allotted 60% of its scholarship funds to merit based students and 35-40% to students in need of financial aid (Marcucci, 2008). This shift of the cost burden away from the government resulted in an increase in overall participation rate in Hungary (figure 5). According to Rosovsky (2001), during the 1990s, Makerere University in Uganda moved from a situation where the government covered all running costs and students did not pay for education to one where more than 70 % of the students paid, resulting in twice the amount of student enrolment and development of infrastructure. While imposing tuition fee is considered to shift the burden of financing higher education away from the government, it is argued that tuition fees or increasing it at a rapid rate might exclude potential students from disadvantaged families. (Johnstone, 2003), thus compromising on the access and equity of university education. 3.2 Loans and deferred payment schemes Financial aid such as loans, means-tested grants and selective scholarships are being introduced to preserve equity and access to university education (Psacharopoulos 1986, Johnstone 1998). Comparing grants and scholarships to loans and other types of deferred payments, the latter tends to relieve the burden of the cost of higher education on the government and raise the universitys revenue. Loans are also more likely to encourage the involvement of market forces, thus leading to efficiency and increased responsiveness of the university (Johnstone, 2003). Furthermore, the problem of exclusion associated with rising tuition fees can be met with the availability of loans and deferred payment schemes that dont consider the financial worth of students and their families (Johnstone, 2003). Student loans in Hungary, sponsored and guaranteed by the government, were introduced by a student loan company owned by the Hungarian State, Dià ¡khitel Kà ¶zpont, in 2001 (Marcucci, 2008). These loans cover tuition fees and living costs, are not means-tested and are available to all students enrolled in public and private higher education institutions in Hungary or the European Economic Area (ibid), thus ensuring equity and access. Other forms of deferred payments, where students bear a certain share of the cost burden and repay the amount gradually, once they have been employed, are also an alternative to recovering expenses. (Johnstone 1998, 2003). Examples of such payment schemes are graduate taxes, a concept never fully adopted (Barr, 1998), the income surtax implemented in Australia (Johnstone, 1998, 2003), and the drawdown pension payment system implemented to repay the student loan fund in Ghana (Johnstone, 2003). In the graduate tax system, the current cost burden incurred by the government for the support of education is not immediately relieved. However, over time, future income surtax payments, which are collectively (potentially) sizeable, albeit highly uncertain, shift the ultimate financial burden away from the government (Johnstone, 1998).   In this system, students incur low or no tuition and living costs. However, once they start earning they have to pay more income tax than they would have otherwise (ibid). The more one earns the more one pays back, thus argued to be progressive in nature and believed to prevent high debt rates among graduate students (BBC, 2010). The Australian Higher Education Contribution Scheme launched in 1998 provided income contingent loans through the Higher Education Loan Programme to help students pay their tuition fee (Johnstone, 1998). Students start repaying the debt once their income is above a certain amount ($54,126 in 2015-2016).   The amount is readjusted on a yearly basis to reflect any changes in Consumer Price Index, thus maintaining the real value of the debt. Participation levels of domestic students in higher education have increased from 3.7% of the population between the ages of 15 to 64 in 1989 to 6.6% in 2014 ( Department of Education and Training, 2015). Figure 6 and 7 show a sharp increase in participation of students after income contingent loans, or graduate taxes, were introduced. Figure 6 Domestic higher education participation and bachelor or higher attainment 1989-2014 ( Department of Education and Training, 2015) Figure 7 University participation by SES: 1988-99 persons (Chapman, 2005) However, such schemes are also critiqued to be inefficient and politically costly (Johnstone, 2003). High earners might choose to work out of the country to avoid the graduate tax. Not only will this result in tax being evaded but also may lead to a brain drain (BBC, 2010). Other than student emigration, payments are often lost due to high defaults and lack of tax records. As Johnstone (1998) notes, applicability of graduate tax to developing countries depends on the degree to which the income tax system can be trusted. Additionally high costs associated with servicing and collecting make such schemes a less attractive option (Johnstone, 2003). According to Psacharopoulos (1986), loans encourage expenditure on education. If the returns to investment in university education are high, loans will help students invest in education, or human capital, consequently increasing the demand for higher education and the flow of private resources into the sector (Psacharopoulos, 1986). However, problems associated with lending loans, such as high collection costs and substantial cases of evasion, have discouraged the development of effective schemes for financing higher education in developing countries. Private banks find the risks and costs of lending too large to incur without charging a prohibitive interest rate, resulting in the governments providing or funding loan programs for students (Psacharopoulos, 1986). Repayment, especially in developing countries, is a major cause of concern associated with lending loans. According to Tilak (1995), only 5.9% of the investments made on student loan programmes in India during 1963-64 to 1987-88 were recovered. Furthermore, according to Johnstone (2003), the willingness to borrow and lend is important since students prefer their financial aid to be non-repayable 3.3   Expansion of private universities Since most developing countries have a highly centralised education sector, stringent rules and barriers restrict the operation and contribution of community run and private institutions. Easing these controls and decentralising management will allow mobilisation of private and local resources in the education sector, reducing the fiscal burden on the government (Psacharopoulos, 1986). The lack of available places in state universities led to the establishment of private universities (Oyebade, 2008). Romania had no private universities before 1989. Laws passed in 1990 resulted in the creation of 70 private institutions, almost all of them claiming university status and enrolling one-third of total enrolments in higher education (Johnstone, 1998). In 1981 in Chile the number of private and public universities charging tuition fees increased. In 1990, 52.4% of the total enrolment was provided for by private universities with no funding from the state. The state, previously incurring all costs, financed only 27% in 1990.   The increasing number of private universities helped meet the rising demand for university education, increased access to higher education and increased diversity, with no costs incurred by the government. However, this change also resulted in an increased tuition fee, falling quality and an uncontrolled rise in the number of private institutions (Johnstone, 1998). Oyebade (2008) finds private universities in Nigeria have increased from 3 institutions in 1999 to 24 in 2006. However, Oyebade adds, the cost of private university education and the poverty level may lead to problems like lack of access and equity. With 90 million people living in absolute poverty in Nigeria, the enrolment of students in private universities is effected considerably. Only one of the seven universities operational in 2005, were fully enrolled and the remaining six, despite being functional for over six years, were not. Private institutions are widely criticized for their lack of quality, as seen in Chile in 1990, and equity, as seen in Nigeria. Additionally, Johnstone (1998) adds, their sustainability is also questionable since their major source of revenue is tuition fees alone. 4. Entrepreneurial Activities Another alternative to finance higher education is generating income through entrepreneurial activities such as selling services, contracting research and renting out facilities. Exploring new ways of generating revenue is a great way for universities to improve quality, be more innovative and increase their relevance in the society by providing services in response to the societys needs (Hans de Wit, 2005). Universities in Mexico began to realise the need for internal revenue generation since government support was not likely to grow, consequently, turning towards entrepreneurial activities, involving faculty and students to raise extra income. Different departments began to generate revenue by providing services and specialised courses (Johnstone, 1998). According to Rena (2006), the University of Zambia and Eduardo Mondlane University in Mozambique have benefited from entrepreneurial activity in the form of improved capacity, information and revenue by establishing and linking internet nodes to local electronic networks and selling their subscriptions. Rena (2006) also adds Ghana and Nsukkas initiatives of consulting activities have proven to be a successful entrepreneurial activity. Ghana claimed a profit of 9% on total revenue of US$22700 in 1991 by providing consultancies through their consultancy centre. Nsukka indicated a profit of US$35,238 through its consultancies between 1982 and 1991. With an income of US$90,398, the consultants received 50% of the profits while the university received 30% and the department received 20%. In Makerere University in Uganda, where previously the government incurred all costs of education, recent entrepreneurial activity generated more than 30% of revenue (Rosovsky, 2001). Makerere has raised revenue through evening classes, commercially running their bookshop and bakery and establishing a consultancy bureau with staff where a portion of the generated revenue goes back into the university (ibid). Universities in China generated income through university enterprises, commissioned training programs and educational services, research (Cheng, 1995) and consultancies and logistic services (World Bank, 1997). According to World Banks report (1997) revenue generated from universities contribute to around 3.7% of total higher education revenue in China. In Shanghai, 50 universities ran approximately 700 enterprises with the total revenue of Y 1 billion in 1992 alone. Fudan Universitys entrepreneurial activities raised a total revenue of Y 20 million, out of which Y 2 million was invested back into the university (World Bank, 1997). Commissioned training, an effective way to earn additional revenue due to the rising demand for skill upgrading, was the second largest source of revenue, constituting around 2.3% of total higher education revenue.   Provision of educational services added up to about 1.1% of the total revenue. For example, the Department of Law of Peking University gene rated revenue by providing short training courses on recently implemented laws to employees belonging to public and private organisations. Income from research and consultancy added up to 1.3% of the revenue in 1992. Income from research in 36 national universities added up to Y1.12 billion. Additionally, logistical services such as running dining halls and hostels, although not highly lucrative, constituted around 0.7% of the revenue (ibid). According to Johnstone (1998), most risks associated with entrepreneurship in developing countries can be overcome by ensuring the activities are legalised and are supported with clear regulations and transparency and efficiency in management and procedures. Entrepreneurial activities, such as those carried out in China, Africa and Mexico, have not only benefitted the universities by raising extra revenue, but also benefitted the economy by increasing responsiveness to consumer needs. 5. Philanthropic: Philanthropic activities and initiatives targeted towards higher education can build up funds for scholarships and grants in public and private universities. Although many cultures and societies have a strong tradition of charity, however, these contributions often ignore higher education since it is either considered a private good or the responsibility of the government (Johnstone, 2003) The Aga Khan University and the Lahore University of Management Sciences, top ranking universities in Pakistan (HEC, 2016), are good examples of successful philanthropic initiatives, established and partly operated through private philanthropy (Rosovsky, 2001). Donations made to educational institutes in china are either used as merit scholarships for students, for faculty training overseas or construction of university buildings bearing the name of the donor (World Bank, 1997). However, most initiatives cannot depend on such financial generosity in developing countries (Rosovsky, 2001). Small provincial universities in underdeveloped, far-flung areas are rarely the recipients of such donations, augmenting the problem of rising disparity between universities and inequalities (World Bank, 1997). 6. Part-time employment for students According to Johnstone (2003), many American students hold jobs that require 20 to 40 hours a week. The encouragement and financial support of the Federal Work-Study Program, which partially subsidises education, and an economy that has an abundance of summer and term-time, part-time employment opportunities, has allowed students in the US to finance their education to a great extent. However, for this to be possible, a robust economy with widespread availability to such low-paying but readily available jobs is necessary. This feature may be largely absent in many countries, especially in developing countries (ibid). 7. Distance learning The trend of distance education has quickly spread across various countries including Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Korea, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, the Philippines, and Thailand (Johnstone, 1998). China, for example, has a network of provincial universities, and a television university, for distance learning programs and education (Johnstone, 1998). After the 1986 National Policy on Education in India, open and distance universities became a means of overcoming the problem inequity and unmet demand for higher education (Tilak, 1995). Approximately 3 million part-time students and 4 million full-time students in India were enrolled in correspondence courses (Johnstone, 1998), which are considered to generate revenue much above the correspondence costs (Tilak, 1995). Distance education and open learning programs can be an effective way of increasing access to university education at moderate costs (Johnstone, 1998). 8. Policy recommendations and conclusion Psacharopoulos (1986) posits generous scholarship schemes covering tuition costs and living expenses are not suitable in the long run because over time, as lower income students start to enrol in higher education, the cost of providing grants and scholarships will become a burden on the government. An increase in the role of private actors in the provision of, and contribution to, higher education is a   popular recommendation (Psacharopoulos   1986,   Johnstone 1998). However, some oversight and regulation may be needed to ensure standards are maintained fraudulent operators are kept at bay.   As Johnstone (1998) suggests, privatisation should be used as a tool to increase access to education, however, the government should continue to provide monitoring and regulation.   Additionally, a greater role of private and community-run schools will encourage competition, eventually leading to higher efficiency and managerial accountability (Psacharopoulos, 1986). Furthermore, Oyebade (2008) stresses on the need for effective student aid programmes, like loan facilities that have a repayment system that is easily traceable, so that students are able to incur the costs of private university education. Psacharopoulos (1986) emphasises on complementing the shift towards increased private financing with the provision student loans and limited selective scholarships, thus not compromising on access of education. Loans allow students to finance their current studies so that those with limited funds arent denied selection into higher education.   Furthermore, to further avoid selection bias and ensure access, the Psacharopoulos (1986) suggests the use of selective scholarships granted on the basis of financial need and academic merit. This will not only provide students with an incentive to perform better but also ease the financial burden of students belonging to poor families, thus minimising inequalities in access to university education. Johnstone (1998) suggests the introduction of private higher education supported through tuition fees, thus shifting the cost away from the government. He further suggests the introduction of loans and means-tested grants to ensure equity and access to higher education. Psacharopoulos (1986) recommends developing a credit market for higher education, where access to education can be augmented through widely available loans and deferred payment schemes. In countries where collection of loans poses a problem,   an alternative being used is repayment in kind through national service (Psacharopoulos, 1986). Educations institutions can raise significant income by offering various products and services such as training programs, marketing the expertise of faculty, carrying out laboratory tests, renting facilities, research and consultancies and centralised programs for teacher training (Rosovsky, 2001). In recent years, it has become possible and permissible for companies to pay for manpower supplied by higher education, for example commissioned training where employers pay a fee in return for a training course for their employees. Another means is rewarded allocation where institutions ask for a fee from the employers in return for the employment of a graduate. The fees being a compensation for the training cost of the manpower provided (Cheng, 1995). Policies encouraging such activities will not only generate additional revenue but encourage innovation and allow educational institutions to provide products and services the society needs. Lastly, part-time and seasonal jobs should be encouraged through state policies and programs, such as the Federal Work-Study Program in the US. Part-time jobs should be readily available for students so that they are able to finance their studies. Additionally, this method not only shifts the cost burden of higher education away from the students families but also decreases the dependency of students on other means of financing such as state funding, loans, scholarships or grants. References Department of Education and Training, 2015. Higher Education in Australia. Barr, N., 1993. The economics of the welfare state. Barr, N. A., 1998. Economics of the Welfare State. BBC, 2010. Tuition fees and graduate tax: Whats the difference?, s.l.: s.n. Bruce Chapman, C. R., 2005. The access implications of income-contingent charges forhigher education: lessons from Australia. Cheng, K.-m., 1995. A Chinese model of higher education? Lessons from reality. In: L. B. a. K. King, ed. Learning from Experience: Policy and Practice in Aid to Higher Education. s.l.:s.n. Grace, G., 1994. Education is a Public Good: On the Need to Resist the Domination of Economic Science . In: Education and the Market Place. s.l.:Psychology Press. Hans de Wit, I. C. J. J. G.-à . a. J. K., 2005. Higher Education in Latin America: The International Dimension. Haynes, D. G. a. M., 2003. Funding Higher Education in the UK: The Role of Fees and Loans. HEC, 2016. 5 th Ranking of Pakistani Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) 2015. I. Fà ¤gerlind, L. J. S., 2002. Education and National Development: A Comparative Perspective. s.l.:s.n. Johnstone, B., 2003. Cost Sharing in Higher Education: Tuition, Financial Assistance, and Accessibility in a Comparative Perspective. Johnstone, D. B., 1998. The Financing and Management of Higher Education: A Status Report on Worldwide Reforms. Marcucci, M. S. a. P., 2008. Higher Education Finance and Cost-Sharing in Hungary. McGavin, P. A., 1991. Reform in the Financing of Higher Education in Papua New Guinea. Okemakinde, D. O. a. T., 2008. Human Capital Theory: Implications for Educational Development. Oyebade, G. I. a. S., 2008. From Public University Dominance to Private University Policy Initiatives in Nigeria: The Push and Pull Factors. Psacharopoulos, G., 1986. Financing Education in Developing Countries: An Exploration of Policy Options.. Rena, R., 2006. Higher Education in Africa A Case of Eritrea. Rosovsky, D. B. a. H., 2001. Higher education in developing countries: Peril and promise.. Salmi, J., 1998. Strategy for Higher Education Development in Latin America: Executive Summary.. Teferra, D., 2013. Funding Higher Education in Africa: State,Trends and Perspectives. The New Zealand Treasury, 1987. 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History Of The Korean Society Of Plastic Surgery Media Essay

History Of The Korean Society Of Plastic Surgery Media Essay ABSTRACT Plastic surgery is a special type of surgery involved both appearance and ability to function. Through plastic surgery patients appearance will be greatly improved. In modern society, Plastic surgery become a very popular with people and one of the most famous Plastic surgery country is South Korea .This paper provides an insight into history and status quo of the Korean Society of Plastic surgery. Based on the finding of the research, the paper draws the conclusion that plastic surgery technology has a lot of change and development which makes plastic surgery become cheaper and safer. Furthermore, there are many new plastic surgery trends formed to meet the needs of the beauty of the Korean people. 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract.1 1. Introduction3 2. Discussion of findings3 2.1: History of the Korean society of plastic surgery3 2.2: South Korea is one of the world leaders in plastic surgery.4 2.3: Plastic surgery trends in South Korea.5 Conclusion.7 References..8 2 1. Introduction. In modern society, when the average quality of life in South Korea is rising, people tend to spend more time and money taking care for their appearance. The development of plastic surgery has help a lot people to fulfill their hope to be beautiful. Therefore, it become very popular in South Korea since its appearance. Plastic surgery has long been big business in the US, but now the trend is sweeping across Asia and South Korea was one of the most affected countries from this trend. Thus, this paper with the purpose of giving more knowledge about the history of plastic surgery of the Korean society, South Korea is the world leader in plastic surgery and Plastic surgery trends in South Korea. 2.Discussion of findings. 2.1: History of the Korean society of plastic surgery. It was around 1945 that there were no plastic surgery techniques available in Korea ( Korean society of plastic and reconstructive surgeons ). Doctors at the time had never heard the term plastic surgery. Nonetheless, after independence, the entry of Western doctors into Korea had brought opportunity for Korean doctors to be able to access Western journals and different medicines such as sulfa drugs and penicillin. At that time, the term plastic surgery was still not mentioned but there are still many documents written about Western doctors performing skin grafts on patients with facial and finger disfigurement and contracture due to severe and chronic necrosis of the skin, skin defects, and burns. In 1950, the Korean War broke out, a lot of doctors from the US and UN were mobilized to cure injured patients, began active treatment of injured patients (Korean society of plastic and reconstructive surgeons ). Among them, the US military doctors Dr. Millard and Dr. Stenstrom had arrived in Busan, they applied various plastic surgery techniques including reconstruction. However, they just concentrated only on their duties and did not intend to develop plastic surgery in Korea. In the mid 1950s ,the importance of plastic surgery was realized when Korean doctors who had learned advanced medicine abroad, including Europe and America , started to teach at colleges and universities in Korea (Korean society of plastic and reconstructive surgeons). Since then, the term à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"Plastic surgery began to be known and widespread in Korea. In August 1961, Dr. Jaeduck Yoo- a professional in plastic surgery in the US , founded the plastic surgery department at Yonsei University Severance Hospital , thereby initiating plastic surgery as a special field of medicine and training specialists in the field for the first time in Korea (Korean society of plastic and reconstructive surgeons ) Since 1964, lectures were given to students on plastic surgery in the college of medicine at Yonsei University and training was given to plastic surgery specialists (Korean society of plastic and reconstructive surgeons). However, such training remained within the scope of general surgery. On May 15, 1966 , some 30 doctors from various fields of medicine, including general surgery, orthopedic surgery, ENT, and ophthalmology, who had an interest in plastic surgery established the Korean Society of Plastic Reconstructive Surgeons. Since then plastic surgery was invested and developed as a new field of medicine (Korean society of plastic and reconstructive surgeons). 2.2: South Korea one of the world leader in plastic surgery. A decade ago, according to ARA n.d.,Plastic surgery is something that only the rich can think about , but now, plastic surgery has become so common that an estimated 30 percent of Korean women aged 20 to 50 had surgical or nonsurgical cosmetic procedures last year, with many having more than one procedure . In an effort to improve their beauty, 20 per cent of women between the ages of 19 and 49 in Seoul, the countrys capital city, admitted they had gone under the knife. Three in every four Korean women aging from 20-30 have undergone plastic surgery and the double eyelid surgery is the most performed one on women in this country. A quarter of Korean mother whose daughter is between the ages of 12 and 16 encourage their children to go to cosmetic surgery. Plus, there is the fact that more than a quarter of Korean graduate students are supposed to be fail in an interview because of their appearance; therefore, they have already undergone plastic surgery, in order to correct this errorà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢. In fact, not only women but men are willing to go under the knife in the name of beauty. According to the latest statistics from the International Society of Aesthetic Plastic Surgeons n.d., South Korea ranked eighth globally in 2010 in terms of the total number of surgical cosmetic procedures performed .There is nothing wrong if they had undergone plastic surgery so 73% of women encourage men to cosmetic surgery to improve their appearance. The strong growth of the entertainment industry in Korea is considered to be the reason for this increasingly popular trend. The doctors said many patients come to the clinic with pictures of celebrities, high desire for nose and eyes as big as his idol. The change in attitudes can also attribute to the trend in which TV actors and pop idols no longer hide their cosmetic treatments. There are many Korean stars had went under the knife to make their appearance become more perfect. A member of the boy-band Big Bang confessed that he underwent surgery following a traffic accident but had also contemplated having his face changed to look more likely one or two movie stars he admired. PSY , a singer with hits Gangnam Style famous around the world, said his record label had begged him to cosmetic surgery to improve appearance. Even Miss Korea 2012 Yu Mi Kim also has been found to stick to the knife when picture time students with very ordinary beauty of her leaked on the net. She said: I never said I was beautiful all natural. 2.3: Plastic surgery trends in South Korea. A new trend in the world is currently very popular is breast augmentation, nose peak of beauty without surgery. Over the past 25 years, because of advances in plastic surgical techniques, the esthetic quality of breast reconstruction has improved greatly. Before the early 1970s, breast reconstruction was a multistage procedure in which a distant random flap was transferred to the chest in a series of operations. The results were not always successful, nor were the reconstructed breasts consistently cosmetically pleasing (Nadine B. Semer, MD, 2001). Breast augmentation, nose which many women choose Owning a pair of breasts plump charming island is a legitimate dream of any woman, and graceful slim nose is the center of the face. However, not all girls brave enough to choose the traditional surgical method when in fact many cases of stroke occurred. A new trend in the world is currently very popular is breast augmentation, nose peak of beauty without surgery. Over time, the aging causes bone structure, muscle and fat of women losing volume. Wrinkles appear, the skin surface gradually loose, sagging breasts after childbirth is a nightmare of women. The smart woman knows to accept the aging of the body, slowing down the process by exercise, diet, and find effective and safety beauty methods. Therefore, they know that even nose or chest, surgical procedures there are risks and complications. With the nose may be allergic to the form, prolonged bleeding, breast augmentation will leave lasting scars, sticky can take the breast, breast disabilities, no milk childbirth.Unlike traditional surgical incision and place the material in the orthopedic area, anesthesia, pain, this new method to a molecular liquid into the body by micro-needle, achieving an accuracy for the amount and location, does not cause pain, bleeding, no anesthesia, no scarring and can be restored immediately after the procedure. This new material is made from Polyamide Polymer f rame with three-dimensional structure similar to collagen, in which the saline component accounted for 98% of the product weight, similar to the 90% with the can be very safe and does not cause any allergic reaction or infection.That is AQUAlift Filler high molecular compounds by high-tech medical center National Institute of Ukraines leading research on the application of new materials in medical research, production, development and use of forest ready in 2004. AQUAlift Filler has been widely used in the cosmetic industry in many developing countries, the certification of many prestigious organizations in the world and a large number of doctors, cosmetic professionals around the world rated with a promising alternative for the visual material in the cosmetic industry. Aqualift application is also effective in removing wrinkles (forehead, eyes, chin, neck), filled tissue on the face (nose shape, chin shape, etc.), curve shape (breast shaping , shaping the butt ).However, the aesth etic effect of this method depends heavily on the skill and expertise of doctors and specialists. Therefore you should choose reputable cosmetic centers, facilities ensure quality.With many young Korean women,s Day graduation gift for her parents a few cosmetic surgery services. Maybe this will become normal in many other Asian countries, including the capital of Vietnam for Asian women small breasts, easy to sag after, snub making faces lack of spontaneity. Better surely will be more successful and confident. 3. Conclusion. From all the findings above, it is clear that several years ago, many people are afraid, embarrassed with cosmetic surgery and often try to hide but today plastic surgery is very normal thing for women and even men in Korea. Since the first time plastic surgery appears in Korea, plastic surgery technology has a lot of change and development which makes plastic surgery becoming cheaper and safer. Besides, there are many new plastic surgery trend formed to meet the needs of the beauty of the Korean people.

Henrik Isbens A Dolls House Essay -- A Dolls House Essays

In many literary works, there are characters in which portray both similarities and differences. In the Play "A Doll's House," by Henrik Ibsen, two of the characters have many oppositions and congruencies. These characters go by the names of Nora Helmer and Mrs. Linde. Ibsen characterizes these women by describing their comparable and contrasting personalities. He does this by describing their financial situations as well as their family lives. He describes these women, as opposites while in fact there are some distinct similarities. They share many of the same values and goals. Both Nora and Mrs. Linde are strong women with a weak exterior. Nora is described as a fragile woman that has been spoiled throughout her lifetime. The men in her life, her father and husband, have taken the roll of the authority figures. Nora is accustomed to relying on men to support and pamper her. She never has a care in the world. Though she appears to be content, in her heart she is not happy. She feels the urge to be set free to live her life the way she wants to, not they way her male authorities tell her to. A childhood friend of Nora's, Mrs. Linde, shares many of the same qualities. Both women have been having recent financial problems. Nora even mentions that she had to find a job as well as Mrs. Linde. She states, "Yes; odds and ends, needlework, crochet-work, embroidery, and that kind of thing (Ibsen 360)." She says this as if she is disgusted by the fact that she must work to...

Reggae got Blues :: essays papers

Reggae got Blues Introduction No food on my table, no shoes to go on my feet No food on my table and no shoes to go on my feet, My children cry for mercy, Lord they ain't got no place to call their own. The blues arose as both a social protest and a means for expression by the Afro-American slave. The institution of slavery had existed before the trans-Atlantic slave trade, but never before had a race suffered such discrimination; oppression and poverty as the West Africans have endured for the last four hundred years. " The African’s sole purpose in America was, for the most part, to provide the cheapest agricultural labor possible to procure"(Baraka, 3). Previous forms of slavery (Roman and Greek) utilized the intellectual capability of slaves, where as the institution of slavery in the Americas treated slaves like that of property, a master would relate to his slave as, ". if you twist the knob on your radio you expect it to play"(Baraka, 3). This, the non-human view of slaves that existed, viewed Africans as heathens and thought them to be primitive and inferior to the Euro-American. These so-called nonliterate peoples whose traditional histories were passed down generati on to generation through oral tradition, were seen as primitive to the highly industrialized Euro-Americans. The profound beliefs and concepts of one culture (African) become absurd and intangible for a complete opposite culture (Euro-American)(Baraka, 7). Not only were the West Africans aliens to the their physical surroundings but aliens to a new "philosophical system"(Baraka, 7). With this in mind the West Africans who survived the western passage across the Atlantic to the Mississippi Delta had found a similar Jamaican Babylon and, " Lord they ain’t got no place to call there own". The blues are an extension of the West African oral tradition through spirituals, worksongs, seculars, and field hollers. From the late eighteen hundreds to the mid twentieth century afro- American’s have been slaves to King Cotton in the form of bound slavery, tenant farming and sharecropping. The endless cycle of debt, has Blues music centered on movement from oppression, and poverty w hile the protest may not always take serious form. I will examine the music of the Delta blues looking for connections to the mento/early reggae era in religious, social and lastly lyrical context. RELIGION African religions usually have a tight fit with a particular culture, language and belief system.

Differences Between Troy Movie and Iliad

The differences between the movie â€Å"Troy† and the poem â€Å"Iliad† and the explanation of why they occurred? The film Troy which is directed by Wolfgang Peterson has been deeply influenced by the epic poem, the Iliad. This work is generally credited to the Ancient Greek poet named Homer. Both the film and the poem have the same ending plots, such as the blockade of Troy by the Greeks, the disagreement between the warrior Achilles and the king Agamemnon and these actions started when the prince of Troy Paris who took the wife king Menelaus of Sparta with him.However there are many main differences related to these plots. These differences include some very major characters dying in the Iliad and surviving in the film troy, the time of the death of characters, and the relationships between the characters. Some of the major differences between the film and the poem are:   1. In the Iliad the war took 10 years in the film Troy it only took 17 days. 2. In the Iliad, P atroclus was not the cousin of Achilles, only a friend. 3.There is no mention of the horse in the Iliad. 4. In the poem, Paris is killed, Hector’s baby is killed, and Hector’s wife is the slave of Greek however in the film Troy they escape safely. 5. Agamemnon was killed by his wife, â€Å"Clytemnestra† in the Greece after the war, not by Briseis who kills him in the film. 6. Hector was too scared of Achilles to fight him and he ran away around the walls of troy 3 times. 7. In the movie Agamemnon brought the kings together for this war, which is not true in the Iliad. . In the movie, Briseis is a member of Priam's family but in the poem, she was simply a slave girl. 9. The movie tells that Achilles is so arrogant that he does not respect Apollo and the Iliad tells that Achilles respects the gods and goddesses. 10. The movie hasn’t shown any close relationships between the Greeks and Trojans and their gods and goddesses. The Iliad demonstrates the close in teractions between the gods and goddesses and their followers.The reason of these differences in the film Troy and the Iliad are to convenience of the director and for entertainment. If the film remained same as the poem â€Å"Iliad† then the movie would have received more limited ratings and decrease the amount of the audience. They would earn less money for the publishing company. Director attempted to make the film more likable by making the film a more feel good by letting Paris, Hector’s wife, Hector’s baby, Helen and Briseis escape with citizens of Troy which created an environment of hopes.The film would have appeal to lower amount of people, if Paris, Hector’s wife and baby had been killed. Many people would have feel frustrated by watching everyone dying that’s why the director did not remain true to the Iliad but in the Iliad there is really no hope left for Troy. There is no other reason for these differences except from money and as all the major and small differences are observed, it becomes very obvious that the film was moulded to a modern day audience with modern day expectations of the film.

Amin Maalouf’s Idea Essay

My understanding of Amin Maalouf’s concept on identity is that human identity is based on an individual’s environment. He defines identity into two categories. One that is inherited through our elders and cultural beliefs â€Å"vertical†, and another that exist according to our generational influence, â€Å"horizontal†. The two categories create our identity as a human and is the source of our behavior. My experience with the vertical heritage is my belief in Christianity. My ancestors and the community I was raised in have traditionally taught me to celebrate religious holidays like Christmas and Easter. I also grew up in a small neighborhood with Christian peers. They have influenced the way I behave and interact by helping to shape my morals. My experience with the â€Å"horizontal† is the communities I have been introduced to, such as, the public and private school environments. They have broadened my personality with their social aspects. One example of what Maalouf is saying is my switch from public to private school. My personality was much different in public school than it was in private. In my public school the social standard for academic progress was average. The fact that there was no assigned dress code distracted me because I would attempt to impress others with my appearance. This influenced my train of thought, behavior and ultimately my identity, until I was placed into a different setting. When I made the switch to private school the distraction of looking different was taken away, and expectations were higher. My surrounding influenced me again and I became more focused on things that mattered and more questionable of my beliefs. What I gained from both these settings was my horizontal inheritance. For example, the music that I listen to and the hobbies I enjoy. Maalouf’s point is that no matter your vertical, your horizontal has a bigger affect on your identity, and since the horizontal is based on contemporaries, you are based on the subjects around you. He points out that there is a gap between what we think we are and what we actually are in reality. We may know we are different but what we don’t realize is in reality we are only becoming identical through arguing are differences. I believe this is a magnificent insight on identity. Mankind changes the world around us and if we all do the same, we end up in each other’s world. We are becoming more and more identical to each other through compromise from arguing our differences because we learn to live with each other. When we accept differences they soon become norms, and once they are norms, they become a standard. I agree with Amin Maaloufs concept on identity.

Beauty and Stylish

The making of their agreement began with oral statement from Stylish who had demands regarding the new house, to provide curtains, blinds, and window coverings. Beauty explained to Stylish that all window coverings were provided in the contract like what Stylish wanted. Several weeks later, Stylish had agreed, and then leads to written contract signing. This is when the issue arose. Somehow Stylish signed the contract which content is contrary to what he originally demanded, different from their pre-contractual statement. That the contract price of the house excludes all window coverings, and is the responsibility of the purchaser.Stylish was upset when he realized that blinds, curtains and other window coverings were not provided. They had a valid contract within their case, and the terms of contract are certainly not breached. Although somehow there is a misrepresentation in term of Stylish’ demand and the content of the contract. The question is whether the Stylish can get his contractual rights in relation to the window coverings. A contract can be defined as an agreement enforceable in law. This suggests that there are some agreements that are not enforceable in law.Whether or not a contract is enforceable in law firstly depends on whether or not the following four statements are satisfied : there must be an offer, acceptance of that offer, consideration or document under seal or deed, and intention to create legal relations. If one of the mentioned elements is missing, there will not be a valid contract. Offer is an expression made by one party as an â€Å"offeror† and the person who accepts the offer as â€Å"offeree†. In another words, offer is willingness by an offeror to enter into a legally binding contract with offeree.In this case, Beauty is an offeror who offered the contract, and Stylish is an offeree whom the offer is made for. Once the offer has been set, then the next step is whether the contract would be accepted or not, which is accepted by Stylish, by signing the written contract. By signing the contract, it is presumed that the parties, Beauty and Stylish intended the document to be bound with sufficient consideration and thus creating legal relations. With the four elements, this contract is valid, recognized, and enforceable by law. In another words, Stylish can invoke assistance of the court. All contracts contain terms.Various statements whether oral or written, may be made in the course of negotiation. This is known as pre-contractual statements. But not all statements end up having the same legal effects. First, the statement made may be in a form of â€Å"puff†. Such puffs cannot be taken seriously. They are advertisement or promotional statement which is not intended to be binding. Next, statements can be a †representation†. It may not be terms of contract, but could just be a statement that would be more than just sales talk. Although representation may be in writing, it is not as a whole part of the contract.Finally, statements made could be term. Terms are statements that form a contract. Somehow terms and representations are so much alike. The difference between a representation and a term depends on the intention of the parties and the actual facts of the case. If the intention of the parties is clear, then the statements they make can be considered to be a term of the contract. Otherwise it is just a representation. In Ecay v Godfrey (1947), the seller sold the boat to the buyer at 750 pounds. However, the seller expressly gave the buyer the opportunity to survey the boat.It was held that the suggestion by the buyer that the seller independently survey the boat to be a representation. In this case, although both Stylish and Beauty had a clear intention of how the new house should be done, but the problem is that when the contract was done, that the intention was somehow not fulfilled. The contract states that the price of the house excludes window coverings, and is responsibility of the purchaser. This statement is a representation because the statement was made orally but was not written in contract. So far the essential elements of a contract and types of terms in a contract have been considered.However, even if a contract has all the essential elements and terms, it may be still declared as unenforceable if the vitiating factor is present. Vitiating factors are number of causes which may prevent a contract from being enforceable in law. The agreement may be vitiated to a void contract or voidable contract by causes of: mistake, misrepresentation, duress, undue influence, illegality. Void contract is treated as if there was no contract at all between the parties. Any belongings received from the agreement must be returned, any items that have been resold to another party, may be returned as well.And any contract that violates public policy is considered as void. Voidable contract A â€Å"voidable† contract, on the other hand, is a valid contract and can be enforced. Usually only one party is bound to the contract terms in a voidable contract. The unbound party is allowed to cancel the contract, which makes the contract void. The main difference between the two is that a void contract cannot be performed under the law, while a voidable contract can still be performed, although the unbound party to the contract can choose to void it before the other party performs.